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Overview:

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) produce some of the most important medical and scientific research in the United States. Operating under the Department of Health and Human Services, NIH is responsible for the creation of a vast range of medical research. Eighty three percent of NIH’s funding is distributed to scientists, medical researchers and university professors both in the US and abroad. NIH also conducts its own research at its 27 institutes and centers. Some of NIH’s researchers have been criticized for accepting money from pharmaceutical companies, while its leader has publicly criticized the policies of President George W. Bush.

 
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History:

The origin of the National Institutes of Health dates back to 1887 when the Marine Hospital Service (MHS) was established for the medical care of merchant seamen. During that time, officials were increasingly concerned with epidemics of infectious diseases, such as cholera and yellow fever, and MHS was charged with examining passengers on arriving ships for signs of such outbreaks. Joseph J. Kinyoun, a young MHS physician trained in the new bacteriological methods, was put in charge of setting up the one-room MHS laboratory in the Marine Hospital on Staten Island, New York.
 
In 1891, the MHS, which was commonly called the Hygienic Laboratory, was moved to Washington, DC. For the next decade, Kinyoun remained the sole full-time staff member, as he implemented a training program in bacteriology for MHS officers and conducted numerous tests of water purity and air pollution for the District of Columbia and Congress. In 1901, the laboratory gained official recognition by Congress when lawmakers authorized $35,000 for construction of a new building in which the laboratory could investigate diseases and handle other matters pertaining to public health.
 
In 1902, Congress adopted legislation that reorganized the MHS and renamed it the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service (PH-MHS). The reorganization led to the creation of the Division of Pathology and Bacteriology with sections that handled chemistry, pharmacology and zoology. These new programs were then headed by PhD specialists, in contrast to the previous practice of limiting professional staff to physicians.
 
That same year, Congress also passed the Biologics Control Act, which gave the PH-MHS the responsibility of regulating the production of vaccines and antitoxins. The move came in response to an incident in which 13 children in St. Louis died after receiving contaminated antitoxin designed to treat diphtheria.
 
In 1912 the PH-MHS’ name was changed again, this time to the Public Health Service (PHS). The service was authorized to conduct research into non-contagious diseases and pollution of streams and lakes. Following this expanded duty, PHS officer Joseph Goldberger conducted an epidemiological study in 1914 that identified the cause of the disease pellagra which was attacking poor people living in the South. Another discovery was made by Earl B. Phelps, then director of the Division of Chemistry, who described the behavior of oxygen in water that fostered better understanding of the effects of pollution in lakes and rivers.
 
During World War I, PHS focused largely on sanitation at military bases in the US and discovered the cause of anthrax outbreaks among the troops to be contaminated shaving brushes, and that the bunion pads widely used to cover smallpox vaccinations could harbor tetanus spores. In 1916, the director of the PHS, Dr. George McCoy, hired the laboratory’s first female bacteriologist, Dr. Ida Bengtson. When the 1918 influenza pandemic struck Washington, physicians from the laboratory were pressed into service treating patients in the District of Columbia because so many local doctors fell ill.
 
In 1930, the National Institute of Health (NIH) name was created through the Ransdell Act, which authorized the establishment of fellowships for research into basic biological and medical problems. The change was motivated by the use of chemical weapons in World War I which had prompted chemists who had worked with the Chemical Warfare Service to establish an institute in the private sector to study ways of applying chemistry to the problems of medicine.
 
Seven years later, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) was created. NCI was authorized to award grants to nonfederal scientists for research on cancer and to fund fellowships at NCI for young researchers. Initially, NCI’s administrative relationship to NIH was not specified, although a research facility on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland, was used by NCI staff. In 1944, NCI officially became part of the National Institute of Health.
 
During World War II, NIH research focused almost entirely on war-related problems. For instance, the Division of Public Health Methods worked with the Selective Service to determine that bad teeth and syphilis were the two leading reasons why 43% of potential inductees were unfit for general military service and 28% were unfit for any military service. Meanwhile, two other NIH divisions (Industrial Hygiene and Pathology and Pharmacology) studied hazardous substances and conditions found in war industries in order to better protect workers. The investigators examined new explosives, developed methods to determine the amount of lead or TNT in urine so that workers could be tested for undue exposure, and demonstrated the affinity of lead for bone tissue. Other investigators determined that the vapors of methyl, ethyl, isopropyl and butyl alcohol were acutely toxic to workers. This work improved conditions of employment for more than 300,000 workers in defense industries.
 
After the war ended, Congress passed the 1944 Public Health Service Act, which shaped the future of medical research in the following decades. The successful grants program of the NCI was expanded to the entire NIH. From just over $4 million in 1947, the program grew to more than $100 million in 1957 and $1 billion by 1974. The entire NIH budget expanded from $8 million in 1947 to more than $1 billion in 1966.
 
Between 1955 and 1968, NIH Director James A. Shannon presided over a period of growth that is known as “the golden years” in NIH history. In addition to the expansion of the grants program, new institutes were added under NIH. Between 1946 and 1949, Congress created institutes for research on mental health, dental diseases and heart disease. In 1948, language in the National Heart Act pluralized the name of the NIH, making it the National Institutes of Health.
 
The original divisions of the old National Institute of Health were divided into two newly created institutes: the National Microbiological Institute (NMI) and the Experimental Biology and Medicine Institute (EMBI). In 1950, the EMBI was absorbed by the newly created National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases. In 1955, NMI became part of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. By 1960, the number of institutes within NIH totaled ten. This number increased by 1970 to 15, and by 1998 the NIH had 27 institutes and centers.
 

NIH Almanac - Historical Data

 

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What it Does:

Part of the Department of Health and Human Services, the National Institutes of Health performs and supports a vast range of medical research. NIH investigates the causes, treatments and preventive strategies for common and rare diseases. According to NIH, 83% of its funding is awarded through almost 50,000 competitive grants and awards to 325,000 scientists and research support staff at 3,000 universities, medical schools and other research institutions across the country and the world. About 10% of the NIH’s budget supports projects conducted by nearly 6,000 scientists in its own laboratories, most of which are on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland.
 
NIH Institutes
The Office of the Director (OD)serves as the central office for NIH’s 27 institutes and centers. OD is responsible for setting policy for NIH and for planning, managing and coordinating the programs and activities of all the NIH offices. OD includes the Office of AIDS Research and the Office of Research on Women’s Health, among others.
 
National Cancer Institute (NCI) (est. 1937) conducts and supports research to prevent cancer. It also seeks to identify cancers at the earliest stage, eliminate cancers through innovative treatment interventions and biologically control cancers so they become manageable, chronic diseases.
 
National Eye Institute (NEI) (est. 1968) supports research that helps prevent and treat eye diseases and other vision disorders.
 
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) (est. 1948) focuses on diseases of the heart, blood vessels, lung, blood, blood resources and sleep disorders. NHLBI also oversees the NIH Women’s Health Initiative.
 
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)(est. 1989) supports the NIH component of the Human Genome Project, a worldwide research effort designed to analyze the structure of human DNA and determine the location of the estimated 30,000 to 40,000 human genes. The NHGRI Intramural Research Program develops and implements technology for understanding, diagnosing and treating genetic diseases.
 
National Institute on Aging (NIA) (est. 1974) leads research on the biomedical, social and behavioral aspects of the aging process, prevention of age-related diseases and disabilities and the promotion of a better quality of life for all older Americans.
 
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (est. 1970) focuses on research to improve the treatment and prevention of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems.
 
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) (est. 1948) investigates infectious, immunologic and allergic diseases that affect millions of human lives.
 
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) (est. 1986) supports research into the causes, treatment and prevention of arthritis and musculoskeletal and skin diseases. It also works to improve the training of basic and clinical scientists to carry out this research.
 
National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB) (est. 2000) promotes discoveries, design and development, translation and assessment of technological capabilities in biomedical imaging and bioengineering involving the areas of information science, physics, chemistry, mathematics, materials science and computer sciences.
 
Eunice Kennedy ShriverNational Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (est. 1962) researches fertility, pregnancy, growth, development and medical rehabilitation to reduce the risk of childhood illness and conditions.
 
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) (est. 1988) conducts and supports biomedical research and research training on normal mechanisms as well as diseases and disorders of hearing, balance, smell, taste, voice, speech and language that affect 46 million Americans.
 
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) (est. 1948) leads a national research program designed to understand, treat and prevent infectious and inherited craniofacial-oral-dental diseases and disorders.
 
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) (est. 1948) conducts and supports basic and applied research in diabetes, endocrinology and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases and nutrition; and kidney, urologic and hematologic diseases.
 
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) (est. 1973) focuses on drug abuse and addiction through research across a broad range of disciplines to improve drug abuse and addiction prevention, treatment and policy.
 
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) (est. 1969) focuses on human illness and dysfunction from environmental causes by examining how environmental exposures, genetic susceptibility and age interact to affect human health.
 
National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) (est. 1962) supports basic biomedical research. NIGMS funds studies on genes, proteins and cells as well as on fundamental processes like communication within and between cells, how bodies use energy and how humans respond to medicines. NIGMS also supports research training programs for biomedical scientists, and it has special programs to encourage underrepresented minorities to pursue biomedical research careers.
 
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (est. 1949) promotes understanding, treating and preventing mental illnesses through clinical, epidemiological and services research on the brain and human behavior.
 
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (est. 1950) supports and conducts research, both basic and clinical, on the normal and diseased nervous system, fosters the training of investigators in the basic and clinical neurosciences and seeks better understanding, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of neurological disorders
 
National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) (est. 1986) supports clinical and basic research to establish a scientific basis for the care of individuals, from the management of patients during illness and recovery to the reduction of risks for disease and disability; the promotion of healthy lifestyles; the promotion of quality of life in those with chronic illness; and the care for individuals at the end of life.
 
National Library of Medicine (NLM) (est. 1956) collects, organizes and makes available biomedical science information to scientists, health professionals and the public. The library’s Web-based databases, including PubMed/Medline and MedlinePlus, are used extensively around the world. NLM conducts and supports research in biomedical communications; creates information resources for molecular biology, biotechnology, toxicology, and environmental health; and provides grant and contract support for training, medical library resources, and biomedical informatics and communications research.
 
NIH Centers
Center for Information Technology (CIT) (est. in 1964) combines computer technology with biomedical programs in focusing on three primary activities: conducting computational biosciences research, developing computer systems and providing computer facilities.
 
Center for Scientific Review (CSR) (est. in 1946) carries out peer review of the research and research training applications submitted to the NIH. In addition, CSR serves as the central receipt point for all Public Health Service (PHS) applications and makes referrals to scientific review groups for scientific and technical merit review of applications and to funding components for potential award.
 
John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (FIC) (est. in 1968) promotes and supports scientific research and training internationally to reduce disparities in global health.
 
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) (est. in 1999) explores complementary and alternative medical (CAM) practices, trains CAM researchers and disseminates information.
 
National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NCMHD) (est. in 1993) promotes minority health and leads NIH’s effort to reduce and eliminate health disparities. NCMHD conducts and supports basic, clinical, social and behavioral research, promotes research infrastructure and training, fosters emerging programs, disseminates information and reaches out to minority and other health disparity communities.
 
National Center for Research Resources (NCRR) (est. in 1962) provides laboratory scientists and clinical researchers with the environments and tools needed to understand, detect, treat and prevent a wide range of diseases. With this support, scientists make biomedical discoveries, translate these findings to animal-based studies, and then apply them to patient-orientated research.
 

NIH Clinical Center (CC)

(est. in 1953) is the clinical research facility of the National Institutes of Health. It provides the patient care, services and environment needed to initiate and support training in clinical research.

 

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Where Does the Money Go:

NIH makes available information on who receives NIH grants, cooperative agreements and contracts. Under its aggregate data section, NIH provides details on NIH recipients, including universities, hospitals and other institutions. Information is broken down by year: 2007; 2006; 2005. For 2007, aggregate data on the following groups is available:
 
To locate information on specific recipients of NIH funds, there is CRISP (Computer Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects), NIH’s searchable biomedical database of federally-supported proposed research conducted at universities, hospitals and other research institutions.
 
Another source of information on NIH expenditures is USAspending.gov. From 2000-2008, NIH spent $26.2 billion on contracts to 19,143 companies and other organizations. The largest expenditures were for basic biomedical research ($3.6 billion) and computer aided design and manufacturing ($2.4 billion).
 
The top 10 recipients of NIH contracts were:
 
SAIC, Inc.       
$2,694,317,798
Westat, Inc
$769,745,370
University of California
$469,149,110
Lockheed Martin
$424,476,660
SRA International
$400,070,633
INEI Corp
$394,695,000
BearingPoint, Inc.
$379,971,872
Pharmaceutical Product Development, Inc.
$373,147,324
Battelle Memorial Institute Inc
$317,856,481
Higgins Development Partners
$293,412,794

 

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Controversies:

NIH Conflict of Interest
In 2003, the Los Angeles Times published a series of articles revealing that many NIH scientists were working for pharmaceutical companies while conducting research on prescription drugs. Two NIH scientists who were profiled were Dr. H. Bryan Brewer Jr., a vascular-disease specialist at the NIH’s National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Dr. Lance A. Liotta, a laboratory chief at the National Cancer Institute.
 
Brewer helped draft national guidelines urging more aggressive use of drugs to lower cholesterol and extolled the wonders of a new cholesterol drug, Crestor - without disclosing that he was a paid consultant to its manufacturer, AstraZeneca.
 
Liotta was leading the federal government’s collaboration with a Maryland company to develop a test to detect ovarian cancer while accepting $70,000 in consulting fees from a competitor firm. Liotta did this with the full knowledge of his superiors at the National Cancer Institute. 
 
The news of Brewer’s, Liotta’s and other NIH moonlighting activities produced considerable criticism that was directed at the renowned research institution, and Congress conducted hearings to examine how bad the NIH’s conflict of interest problem was.
 
Experts and observers called for reforms at NIH that would ban employees from taking money from the healthcare industry. NIH’s director, Elias Zerhouni, initially rejected the call for reforms, arguing a tough conflict of interest policy might cause a “brain drain” as researchers fled to the private sector. But with criticism mounting, Zerhouni decided to back the suggestions of a blue ribbon panel that suggested new ethics rules for NIH scientists.
 
Zerhouni’s decision provoked a backlash within NIH, as many of its employees complained about the new rules. In the case of Brewer and Liotta, both men left NIH.
 
The new rules did not, however, end problems of conflict of interest. In 2007, the Department of Health and Human Services’ Inspector General reopened 103 conflict-of-interest cases involving NIH intramural researchers. The 103 cases were reopened on the basis of information gathered by the House Energy & Commerce Committee on financial arrangements between NIH employees and several large pharmaceutical companies.
Agency Scientists Divided Over Ethics Ban on Consulting (by Gardiner Harris, New York Times)

Three Researchers in NIH Controversy Are Leaving

(by David Willman, Los Angeles Times)

 

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Former Directors:

Chronology of NIH Directors

 

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Founded: 1887
Annual Budget: $29.5 billion
Employees: 18,000
Official Website: http://www.nih.gov/
National Institutes of Health
Collins, Francis
Director

Francis S. Collins brings one of the more eclectic, and highly regarded, profiles to the Obama administration as director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). A leading figure in the completion of the Human Genome Project, which is considered one of  the most important scientific accomplishments of our time, Collins brings a wealth of scientific credentials to the post. He also possesses a religious perspective that has rubbed some of his counterparts the wrong way, along with a deep love for motorcycles and rock music. He was confirmed by the Senate August 7, 2009.

 
Born on April 14, 1950, Collins grew up on a small farm in Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley along with his three brothers. His father taught at a nearby women’s college when not tending to the farm. His mother, a playwright, home schooled Collins until the sixth grade.
 
After graduating from Robert E. Lee High School at age 16, Collins enrolled at the University of Virginia, where he focused more on chemistry and physics than biology. He earned a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1970, and then attended graduate school at Yale University, attaining a PhD in physical chemistry in 1974.
 
While at Yale, he became fascinated with molecular biology and genetics, prompting him to attend medical school at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He earned his MD in 1977. This time of his life was also marked by a growing fascination with spirituality, thanks to the writings of C.S. Lewis. Although raised by parents who were not particularly religious, Collins developed a strong interest in religion, and eventually he became an evangelical Christian.
 
Collins performed his residency in internal medicine at North Carolina Memorial Hospital in Chapel Hill from 1978 to 1981, before returning to Yale and being named a Fellow in Human Genetics (1981-1984). It was then that he developed innovative methods of crossing large stretches of DNA to identify disease genes.
 
In 1984, he joined the faculty at the University of Michigan and eventually was named a Professor of Internal Medicine and Human Genetics. He continued to perform genetic research and develop “positional cloning,” a technique later adopted by other researchers.
 
Together with Lap-Chee Tsui and Jack Riordan of the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, Collins’ research team identified the gene for cystic fibrosis in 1989. This achievement was followed by the identification of the neurofibromatosis gene in 1990 and the defective gene that causes Huntington’s disease in 1993.
 
That same year, Collins took over the leadership of the government’s Human Genome Project as director of the National Center for Human Genome Research (later renamed the National Human Genome Research Institute, (NHGRI). He oversaw the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, and the following year, he founded the center’s Division of Intramural Research (DIR), which eventually became a premier research center studying human genetics.
 
Throughout the rest of the 1990s, Collins’ team strove to map the human genome, and in 2000, he shared the spotlight with rival scientist Craig Venter as part of President Bill Clinton’s celebratory announcement that a DNA blueprint was finally available to mankind.
 
In 2006 Collins published the book, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief. His outspokenness on religion has resulted in public arguments with other scientists who don’t share his views mixing science and spirituality.
 
Collins retired from the NHGRI in May 2008, although he continued to do research on a volunteer basis.
 
Outside of his work, Collins loves to play the guitar and ride motorcycles. While directing the NHGRI, he formed a rock band, The Directors, with other scientists working for the NIH.
-Noel Brinkerhoff
 
Official Biography (National Institutes of Health)
Francis Collins Biography (National Human Genome Research Institute)
Cracking the Code of Life (Academy of Achievement)
Creation or Evolution? Yes! (Interview by Stan Guthrie, Christianity Today)
 
 
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Zerhouni, Elias
Previous Director
A native of Algeria, Dr. Elias A. Zerhouni has served as director of the National Institutes of Health since May 2002. Zerhouni was born in Algeria and came to the United States at age 24, having earned his medical degree at the University of Algiers School of Medicine in 1975.
 
After completing his residency in diagnostic radiology at Johns Hopkins in 1978 as chief resident, he served as assistant professor in 1979 and associate professor in 1985. Between 1981 and 1985, Zerhouni was in the department of radiology at Eastern Virginia Medical School and its affiliated DePaul Hospital.
 
In 1988, Zerhouni returned to Johns Hopkins, where he was appointed director of the MRI division and then was appointed full professor in 1992, becoming the chairman of the radiology department in January 1996. He later became vice dean for research at Johns Hopkins, chair of the Russell H. Morgan department of radiology and radiological science and executive vice-dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine,
 
Zerhouni is credited with developing imaging methods used for diagnosing cancer and cardiovascular disease. He pioneered magnetic tagging, a non-invasive method of using MRI to track the motions of a heart in three dimensions. He is also renowned for refining an imaging technique called computed tomographic (CT) densitometry that helps discriminate between non-cancerous and cancerous nodules in the lung.
 
Zerhouni’s political affiliations include working as a consultant to the White House under President Ronald Reagan and to the World Health Organization in 1988. Since 2000, he has been a member of the National Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Medicine. He served on the National Cancer Institute’s Board of Scientific Advisors from 1998-2002.
 
While leading NIH, Zerhouni has not been afraid to take public stances that placed him in opposition to President George W. Bush, who nominated him. In July 2006, Zerhouni joined 36 other prominent Arab Americans in calling for a cease fire in the Middle East. The proclamation ran as a half-page ad in the Washington Post by the Arab-American Institute Foundation. The ad called upon “all those in power to stop the violence” through a cease-fire so that “reconciliation and reconstruction” efforts can begin. Zerhouni lent his name to the ad but left off his NIH title.
 
The following year, Zerhouni went even farther out on a limb when he publicly announced his support for expanded federal research involving stem cells. That view put Zerhouni at odds with his boss, President Bush, who twice had vetoed legislation that sought to expand research on new embryonic lines. Some observers wondered if Zerhouni was likely to be forced out at NIH for his remarks but nothing happened.
 
NIH Director Joins Call For Mideast Cease-Fire (by Christopher Lee, Washington Post)
Q&A with Elias Zerhouni, Chemical & Engineering News (by Susan R. Morrissey, Chemical & Engineering News)
 
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Bookmark and Share
Overview:

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) produce some of the most important medical and scientific research in the United States. Operating under the Department of Health and Human Services, NIH is responsible for the creation of a vast range of medical research. Eighty three percent of NIH’s funding is distributed to scientists, medical researchers and university professors both in the US and abroad. NIH also conducts its own research at its 27 institutes and centers. Some of NIH’s researchers have been criticized for accepting money from pharmaceutical companies, while its leader has publicly criticized the policies of President George W. Bush.

 
more
History:

The origin of the National Institutes of Health dates back to 1887 when the Marine Hospital Service (MHS) was established for the medical care of merchant seamen. During that time, officials were increasingly concerned with epidemics of infectious diseases, such as cholera and yellow fever, and MHS was charged with examining passengers on arriving ships for signs of such outbreaks. Joseph J. Kinyoun, a young MHS physician trained in the new bacteriological methods, was put in charge of setting up the one-room MHS laboratory in the Marine Hospital on Staten Island, New York.
 
In 1891, the MHS, which was commonly called the Hygienic Laboratory, was moved to Washington, DC. For the next decade, Kinyoun remained the sole full-time staff member, as he implemented a training program in bacteriology for MHS officers and conducted numerous tests of water purity and air pollution for the District of Columbia and Congress. In 1901, the laboratory gained official recognition by Congress when lawmakers authorized $35,000 for construction of a new building in which the laboratory could investigate diseases and handle other matters pertaining to public health.
 
In 1902, Congress adopted legislation that reorganized the MHS and renamed it the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service (PH-MHS). The reorganization led to the creation of the Division of Pathology and Bacteriology with sections that handled chemistry, pharmacology and zoology. These new programs were then headed by PhD specialists, in contrast to the previous practice of limiting professional staff to physicians.
 
That same year, Congress also passed the Biologics Control Act, which gave the PH-MHS the responsibility of regulating the production of vaccines and antitoxins. The move came in response to an incident in which 13 children in St. Louis died after receiving contaminated antitoxin designed to treat diphtheria.
 
In 1912 the PH-MHS’ name was changed again, this time to the Public Health Service (PHS). The service was authorized to conduct research into non-contagious diseases and pollution of streams and lakes. Following this expanded duty, PHS officer Joseph Goldberger conducted an epidemiological study in 1914 that identified the cause of the disease pellagra which was attacking poor people living in the South. Another discovery was made by Earl B. Phelps, then director of the Division of Chemistry, who described the behavior of oxygen in water that fostered better understanding of the effects of pollution in lakes and rivers.
 
During World War I, PHS focused largely on sanitation at military bases in the US and discovered the cause of anthrax outbreaks among the troops to be contaminated shaving brushes, and that the bunion pads widely used to cover smallpox vaccinations could harbor tetanus spores. In 1916, the director of the PHS, Dr. George McCoy, hired the laboratory’s first female bacteriologist, Dr. Ida Bengtson. When the 1918 influenza pandemic struck Washington, physicians from the laboratory were pressed into service treating patients in the District of Columbia because so many local doctors fell ill.
 
In 1930, the National Institute of Health (NIH) name was created through the Ransdell Act, which authorized the establishment of fellowships for research into basic biological and medical problems. The change was motivated by the use of chemical weapons in World War I which had prompted chemists who had worked with the Chemical Warfare Service to establish an institute in the private sector to study ways of applying chemistry to the problems of medicine.
 
Seven years later, the National Cancer Institute (NCI) was created. NCI was authorized to award grants to nonfederal scientists for research on cancer and to fund fellowships at NCI for young researchers. Initially, NCI’s administrative relationship to NIH was not specified, although a research facility on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland, was used by NCI staff. In 1944, NCI officially became part of the National Institute of Health.
 
During World War II, NIH research focused almost entirely on war-related problems. For instance, the Division of Public Health Methods worked with the Selective Service to determine that bad teeth and syphilis were the two leading reasons why 43% of potential inductees were unfit for general military service and 28% were unfit for any military service. Meanwhile, two other NIH divisions (Industrial Hygiene and Pathology and Pharmacology) studied hazardous substances and conditions found in war industries in order to better protect workers. The investigators examined new explosives, developed methods to determine the amount of lead or TNT in urine so that workers could be tested for undue exposure, and demonstrated the affinity of lead for bone tissue. Other investigators determined that the vapors of methyl, ethyl, isopropyl and butyl alcohol were acutely toxic to workers. This work improved conditions of employment for more than 300,000 workers in defense industries.
 
After the war ended, Congress passed the 1944 Public Health Service Act, which shaped the future of medical research in the following decades. The successful grants program of the NCI was expanded to the entire NIH. From just over $4 million in 1947, the program grew to more than $100 million in 1957 and $1 billion by 1974. The entire NIH budget expanded from $8 million in 1947 to more than $1 billion in 1966.
 
Between 1955 and 1968, NIH Director James A. Shannon presided over a period of growth that is known as “the golden years” in NIH history. In addition to the expansion of the grants program, new institutes were added under NIH. Between 1946 and 1949, Congress created institutes for research on mental health, dental diseases and heart disease. In 1948, language in the National Heart Act pluralized the name of the NIH, making it the National Institutes of Health.
 
The original divisions of the old National Institute of Health were divided into two newly created institutes: the National Microbiological Institute (NMI) and the Experimental Biology and Medicine Institute (EMBI). In 1950, the EMBI was absorbed by the newly created National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases. In 1955, NMI became part of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. By 1960, the number of institutes within NIH totaled ten. This number increased by 1970 to 15, and by 1998 the NIH had 27 institutes and centers.
 

NIH Almanac - Historical Data

 

more
What it Does:

Part of the Department of Health and Human Services, the National Institutes of Health performs and supports a vast range of medical research. NIH investigates the causes, treatments and preventive strategies for common and rare diseases. According to NIH, 83% of its funding is awarded through almost 50,000 competitive grants and awards to 325,000 scientists and research support staff at 3,000 universities, medical schools and other research institutions across the country and the world. About 10% of the NIH’s budget supports projects conducted by nearly 6,000 scientists in its own laboratories, most of which are on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland.
 
NIH Institutes
The Office of the Director (OD)serves as the central office for NIH’s 27 institutes and centers. OD is responsible for setting policy for NIH and for planning, managing and coordinating the programs and activities of all the NIH offices. OD includes the Office of AIDS Research and the Office of Research on Women’s Health, among others.
 
National Cancer Institute (NCI) (est. 1937) conducts and supports research to prevent cancer. It also seeks to identify cancers at the earliest stage, eliminate cancers through innovative treatment interventions and biologically control cancers so they become manageable, chronic diseases.
 
National Eye Institute (NEI) (est. 1968) supports research that helps prevent and treat eye diseases and other vision disorders.
 
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) (est. 1948) focuses on diseases of the heart, blood vessels, lung, blood, blood resources and sleep disorders. NHLBI also oversees the NIH Women’s Health Initiative.
 
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)(est. 1989) supports the NIH component of the Human Genome Project, a worldwide research effort designed to analyze the structure of human DNA and determine the location of the estimated 30,000 to 40,000 human genes. The NHGRI Intramural Research Program develops and implements technology for understanding, diagnosing and treating genetic diseases.
 
National Institute on Aging (NIA) (est. 1974) leads research on the biomedical, social and behavioral aspects of the aging process, prevention of age-related diseases and disabilities and the promotion of a better quality of life for all older Americans.
 
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (est. 1970) focuses on research to improve the treatment and prevention of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems.
 
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) (est. 1948) investigates infectious, immunologic and allergic diseases that affect millions of human lives.
 
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) (est. 1986) supports research into the causes, treatment and prevention of arthritis and musculoskeletal and skin diseases. It also works to improve the training of basic and clinical scientists to carry out this research.
 
National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB) (est. 2000) promotes discoveries, design and development, translation and assessment of technological capabilities in biomedical imaging and bioengineering involving the areas of information science, physics, chemistry, mathematics, materials science and computer sciences.
 
Eunice Kennedy ShriverNational Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (est. 1962) researches fertility, pregnancy, growth, development and medical rehabilitation to reduce the risk of childhood illness and conditions.
 
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) (est. 1988) conducts and supports biomedical research and research training on normal mechanisms as well as diseases and disorders of hearing, balance, smell, taste, voice, speech and language that affect 46 million Americans.
 
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR) (est. 1948) leads a national research program designed to understand, treat and prevent infectious and inherited craniofacial-oral-dental diseases and disorders.
 
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) (est. 1948) conducts and supports basic and applied research in diabetes, endocrinology and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases and nutrition; and kidney, urologic and hematologic diseases.
 
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) (est. 1973) focuses on drug abuse and addiction through research across a broad range of disciplines to improve drug abuse and addiction prevention, treatment and policy.
 
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) (est. 1969) focuses on human illness and dysfunction from environmental causes by examining how environmental exposures, genetic susceptibility and age interact to affect human health.
 
National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) (est. 1962) supports basic biomedical research. NIGMS funds studies on genes, proteins and cells as well as on fundamental processes like communication within and between cells, how bodies use energy and how humans respond to medicines. NIGMS also supports research training programs for biomedical scientists, and it has special programs to encourage underrepresented minorities to pursue biomedical research careers.
 
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) (est. 1949) promotes understanding, treating and preventing mental illnesses through clinical, epidemiological and services research on the brain and human behavior.
 
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) (est. 1950) supports and conducts research, both basic and clinical, on the normal and diseased nervous system, fosters the training of investigators in the basic and clinical neurosciences and seeks better understanding, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of neurological disorders
 
National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) (est. 1986) supports clinical and basic research to establish a scientific basis for the care of individuals, from the management of patients during illness and recovery to the reduction of risks for disease and disability; the promotion of healthy lifestyles; the promotion of quality of life in those with chronic illness; and the care for individuals at the end of life.
 
National Library of Medicine (NLM) (est. 1956) collects, organizes and makes available biomedical science information to scientists, health professionals and the public. The library’s Web-based databases, including PubMed/Medline and MedlinePlus, are used extensively around the world. NLM conducts and supports research in biomedical communications; creates information resources for molecular biology, biotechnology, toxicology, and environmental health; and provides grant and contract support for training, medical library resources, and biomedical informatics and communications research.
 
NIH Centers
Center for Information Technology (CIT) (est. in 1964) combines computer technology with biomedical programs in focusing on three primary activities: conducting computational biosciences research, developing computer systems and providing computer facilities.
 
Center for Scientific Review (CSR) (est. in 1946) carries out peer review of the research and research training applications submitted to the NIH. In addition, CSR serves as the central receipt point for all Public Health Service (PHS) applications and makes referrals to scientific review groups for scientific and technical merit review of applications and to funding components for potential award.
 
John E. Fogarty International Center for Advanced Study in the Health Sciences (FIC) (est. in 1968) promotes and supports scientific research and training internationally to reduce disparities in global health.
 
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) (est. in 1999) explores complementary and alternative medical (CAM) practices, trains CAM researchers and disseminates information.
 
National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NCMHD) (est. in 1993) promotes minority health and leads NIH’s effort to reduce and eliminate health disparities. NCMHD conducts and supports basic, clinical, social and behavioral research, promotes research infrastructure and training, fosters emerging programs, disseminates information and reaches out to minority and other health disparity communities.
 
National Center for Research Resources (NCRR) (est. in 1962) provides laboratory scientists and clinical researchers with the environments and tools needed to understand, detect, treat and prevent a wide range of diseases. With this support, scientists make biomedical discoveries, translate these findings to animal-based studies, and then apply them to patient-orientated research.
 

NIH Clinical Center (CC)

(est. in 1953) is the clinical research facility of the National Institutes of Health. It provides the patient care, services and environment needed to initiate and support training in clinical research.

 

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Where Does the Money Go:

NIH makes available information on who receives NIH grants, cooperative agreements and contracts. Under its aggregate data section, NIH provides details on NIH recipients, including universities, hospitals and other institutions. Information is broken down by year: 2007; 2006; 2005. For 2007, aggregate data on the following groups is available:
 
To locate information on specific recipients of NIH funds, there is CRISP (Computer Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects), NIH’s searchable biomedical database of federally-supported proposed research conducted at universities, hospitals and other research institutions.
 
Another source of information on NIH expenditures is USAspending.gov. From 2000-2008, NIH spent $26.2 billion on contracts to 19,143 companies and other organizations. The largest expenditures were for basic biomedical research ($3.6 billion) and computer aided design and manufacturing ($2.4 billion).
 
The top 10 recipients of NIH contracts were:
 
SAIC, Inc.       
$2,694,317,798
Westat, Inc
$769,745,370
University of California
$469,149,110
Lockheed Martin
$424,476,660
SRA International
$400,070,633
INEI Corp
$394,695,000
BearingPoint, Inc.
$379,971,872
Pharmaceutical Product Development, Inc.
$373,147,324
Battelle Memorial Institute Inc
$317,856,481
Higgins Development Partners
$293,412,794

 

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Controversies:

NIH Conflict of Interest
In 2003, the Los Angeles Times published a series of articles revealing that many NIH scientists were working for pharmaceutical companies while conducting research on prescription drugs. Two NIH scientists who were profiled were Dr. H. Bryan Brewer Jr., a vascular-disease specialist at the NIH’s National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Dr. Lance A. Liotta, a laboratory chief at the National Cancer Institute.
 
Brewer helped draft national guidelines urging more aggressive use of drugs to lower cholesterol and extolled the wonders of a new cholesterol drug, Crestor - without disclosing that he was a paid consultant to its manufacturer, AstraZeneca.
 
Liotta was leading the federal government’s collaboration with a Maryland company to develop a test to detect ovarian cancer while accepting $70,000 in consulting fees from a competitor firm. Liotta did this with the full knowledge of his superiors at the National Cancer Institute. 
 
The news of Brewer’s, Liotta’s and other NIH moonlighting activities produced considerable criticism that was directed at the renowned research institution, and Congress conducted hearings to examine how bad the NIH’s conflict of interest problem was.
 
Experts and observers called for reforms at NIH that would ban employees from taking money from the healthcare industry. NIH’s director, Elias Zerhouni, initially rejected the call for reforms, arguing a tough conflict of interest policy might cause a “brain drain” as researchers fled to the private sector. But with criticism mounting, Zerhouni decided to back the suggestions of a blue ribbon panel that suggested new ethics rules for NIH scientists.
 
Zerhouni’s decision provoked a backlash within NIH, as many of its employees complained about the new rules. In the case of Brewer and Liotta, both men left NIH.
 
The new rules did not, however, end problems of conflict of interest. In 2007, the Department of Health and Human Services’ Inspector General reopened 103 conflict-of-interest cases involving NIH intramural researchers. The 103 cases were reopened on the basis of information gathered by the House Energy & Commerce Committee on financial arrangements between NIH employees and several large pharmaceutical companies.
Agency Scientists Divided Over Ethics Ban on Consulting (by Gardiner Harris, New York Times)

Three Researchers in NIH Controversy Are Leaving

(by David Willman, Los Angeles Times)

 

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Former Directors:

Chronology of NIH Directors

 

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Founded: 1887
Annual Budget: $29.5 billion
Employees: 18,000
Official Website: http://www.nih.gov/
National Institutes of Health
Collins, Francis
Director

Francis S. Collins brings one of the more eclectic, and highly regarded, profiles to the Obama administration as director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). A leading figure in the completion of the Human Genome Project, which is considered one of  the most important scientific accomplishments of our time, Collins brings a wealth of scientific credentials to the post. He also possesses a religious perspective that has rubbed some of his counterparts the wrong way, along with a deep love for motorcycles and rock music. He was confirmed by the Senate August 7, 2009.

 
Born on April 14, 1950, Collins grew up on a small farm in Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley along with his three brothers. His father taught at a nearby women’s college when not tending to the farm. His mother, a playwright, home schooled Collins until the sixth grade.
 
After graduating from Robert E. Lee High School at age 16, Collins enrolled at the University of Virginia, where he focused more on chemistry and physics than biology. He earned a Bachelor of Science in chemistry in 1970, and then attended graduate school at Yale University, attaining a PhD in physical chemistry in 1974.
 
While at Yale, he became fascinated with molecular biology and genetics, prompting him to attend medical school at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He earned his MD in 1977. This time of his life was also marked by a growing fascination with spirituality, thanks to the writings of C.S. Lewis. Although raised by parents who were not particularly religious, Collins developed a strong interest in religion, and eventually he became an evangelical Christian.
 
Collins performed his residency in internal medicine at North Carolina Memorial Hospital in Chapel Hill from 1978 to 1981, before returning to Yale and being named a Fellow in Human Genetics (1981-1984). It was then that he developed innovative methods of crossing large stretches of DNA to identify disease genes.
 
In 1984, he joined the faculty at the University of Michigan and eventually was named a Professor of Internal Medicine and Human Genetics. He continued to perform genetic research and develop “positional cloning,” a technique later adopted by other researchers.
 
Together with Lap-Chee Tsui and Jack Riordan of the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, Collins’ research team identified the gene for cystic fibrosis in 1989. This achievement was followed by the identification of the neurofibromatosis gene in 1990 and the defective gene that causes Huntington’s disease in 1993.
 
That same year, Collins took over the leadership of the government’s Human Genome Project as director of the National Center for Human Genome Research (later renamed the National Human Genome Research Institute, (NHGRI). He oversaw the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, and the following year, he founded the center’s Division of Intramural Research (DIR), which eventually became a premier research center studying human genetics.
 
Throughout the rest of the 1990s, Collins’ team strove to map the human genome, and in 2000, he shared the spotlight with rival scientist Craig Venter as part of President Bill Clinton’s celebratory announcement that a DNA blueprint was finally available to mankind.
 
In 2006 Collins published the book, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief. His outspokenness on religion has resulted in public arguments with other scientists who don’t share his views mixing science and spirituality.
 
Collins retired from the NHGRI in May 2008, although he continued to do research on a volunteer basis.
 
Outside of his work, Collins loves to play the guitar and ride motorcycles. While directing the NHGRI, he formed a rock band, The Directors, with other scientists working for the NIH.
-Noel Brinkerhoff
 
Official Biography (National Institutes of Health)
Francis Collins Biography (National Human Genome Research Institute)
Cracking the Code of Life (Academy of Achievement)
Creation or Evolution? Yes! (Interview by Stan Guthrie, Christianity Today)
 
 
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Zerhouni, Elias
Previous Director
A native of Algeria, Dr. Elias A. Zerhouni has served as director of the National Institutes of Health since May 2002. Zerhouni was born in Algeria and came to the United States at age 24, having earned his medical degree at the University of Algiers School of Medicine in 1975.
 
After completing his residency in diagnostic radiology at Johns Hopkins in 1978 as chief resident, he served as assistant professor in 1979 and associate professor in 1985. Between 1981 and 1985, Zerhouni was in the department of radiology at Eastern Virginia Medical School and its affiliated DePaul Hospital.
 
In 1988, Zerhouni returned to Johns Hopkins, where he was appointed director of the MRI division and then was appointed full professor in 1992, becoming the chairman of the radiology department in January 1996. He later became vice dean for research at Johns Hopkins, chair of the Russell H. Morgan department of radiology and radiological science and executive vice-dean of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine,
 
Zerhouni is credited with developing imaging methods used for diagnosing cancer and cardiovascular disease. He pioneered magnetic tagging, a non-invasive method of using MRI to track the motions of a heart in three dimensions. He is also renowned for refining an imaging technique called computed tomographic (CT) densitometry that helps discriminate between non-cancerous and cancerous nodules in the lung.
 
Zerhouni’s political affiliations include working as a consultant to the White House under President Ronald Reagan and to the World Health Organization in 1988. Since 2000, he has been a member of the National Academy of Sciences’ Institute of Medicine. He served on the National Cancer Institute’s Board of Scientific Advisors from 1998-2002.
 
While leading NIH, Zerhouni has not been afraid to take public stances that placed him in opposition to President George W. Bush, who nominated him. In July 2006, Zerhouni joined 36 other prominent Arab Americans in calling for a cease fire in the Middle East. The proclamation ran as a half-page ad in the Washington Post by the Arab-American Institute Foundation. The ad called upon “all those in power to stop the violence” through a cease-fire so that “reconciliation and reconstruction” efforts can begin. Zerhouni lent his name to the ad but left off his NIH title.
 
The following year, Zerhouni went even farther out on a limb when he publicly announced his support for expanded federal research involving stem cells. That view put Zerhouni at odds with his boss, President Bush, who twice had vetoed legislation that sought to expand research on new embryonic lines. Some observers wondered if Zerhouni was likely to be forced out at NIH for his remarks but nothing happened.
 
NIH Director Joins Call For Mideast Cease-Fire (by Christopher Lee, Washington Post)
Q&A with Elias Zerhouni, Chemical & Engineering News (by Susan R. Morrissey, Chemical & Engineering News)
 
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