Representing the largest organization in the US federal government today, with an annual budget of half a trillion dollars, the Department of Defense (DoD) is responsible for maintaining the national defense of the United States. DoD includes all four branches of the armed services - Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines - along with multiple sub-agencies that produce everything from weapons and supplies for military units to intelligence on foreign threats.
While DoD operations and offices are located across the country, and the armed services operate in many parts of the world, the Defense Department is primarily centered at the Pentagon, one of the largest building ever constructed. In order to operate effectively (although not necessarily efficiently, critics would argue), DoD maintains a complex
organizational structure (PDF) that segments the hundreds of tasks that are performed both on a day-to-day basis and for long-term strategic planning.
DoD is led by the Secretary of Defense, a cabinet-level position appointed by the President and subject to confirmation by the US Senate. The Secretary of Defense is assisted by a variety of under secretaries and assistant secretaries who manage specific functions. These include:
o Director of Defense Research and Engineering
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition and Technology)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Logistics and Materiel Readiness)
o Assistant to the Secretary of Defense (Nuclear and Chemical and Biological Defense Programs)
o Director of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition Reform)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Advanced Systems and Concepts)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Environmental Security)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Industrial Affairs)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Science and Technology)
o Principal Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller)
o Director for Program Analysis and Evaluation
o Assistant Secretary of Defense (Force Management Policy)
o Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs)
o Assistant Secretary of Defense (Reserve Affairs)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Readiness)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Program Integration)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Planning)
o Principal Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Policy)
o Assistant Secretary of Defense (International Security Affairs)
o Assistant Secretary of Defense (Strategy and Threat Reduction)
o Assistant Secretary of Defense (Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Policy Support)
o Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Technology Security Policy)
o Defense Advisor, U.S. Mission NATO
Thanks to the Bush administration’s Global War on Terrorism campaign, which includes ongoing military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, DoD’s budget has ballooned this decade to its highest levels ever. However, it must be noted that the annual budget appropriation for DoD often does not include emergency spending bills (called supplementals) approved by Congress after the regular budget has been approved. It is estimated that the military invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq have cost $500 billion since 2001, much of which has been authorized through supplementals.
The budget for DoD in FY 2008 was $480 billion. Some of the key defense activities to receive a portion of this money are:
Fighting Forces
The United States Army’s mission is to provide ground forces for American military operations and wars. Combat forces generally consist of foot soldiers, or infantry, or soldiers who man tanks and artillery that make up armored units. Other Army personnel provide a variety of support duties, from engineering to medical care to fuel and food. The Army employs a vast array of weapons and equipment as part of its military operations. Examples of its military hardware include aircraft, air defense artillery, anti-armor weapons, indirect fire systems, individual & crew-served weapons & equipment, nuclear, biological, chemical defense equipment, tracked vehicles and wheeled vehicles. Army forces deployed overseas currently number about 256,000.
The Navy Department oversees both the US Navy and the Marine Corps. The Navy represents the seagoing branch of the armed services, maintaining fleets of ocean-going surface vessels and submarines capable of extending American sea and air power anywhere in the world. Naval vessels fall into one of seven classes: aircraft carriers; amphibious assault ships; battleships; cruisers; destroyers; frigates; and submarines. Battleships, cruisers and destroyers have an assortment of guns and missile systems, while aircraft carriers carry both fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.
Located under the authority of the Department of the Navy, the Marine Corps serves as a land and air “force in readiness” capable of supporting US military operations and executing national political objectives. Since the late 19th Century, Marines have been used by the US government to execute foreign policy objectives and protect American interests overseas. USMC forces have been at the center of major wars and key military operations, garnering them a reputation as an elite fighting force.
The US Air Force (USAF) constitutes the aviation component of the Armed Services, providing tactical, strategic and logistical air support for US military operations. USAF also is charged with operational command of US nuclear forces. Some of the most advanced weapons systems in the US military have been developed for the Air Force, often at great costs and involving much controversy.
Located at MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, FL, the US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) oversees all Special Operations Forces (SOF) in the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps. Special Operations soldiers are specially trained, equipped and organized to carry out strategic or tactical missions during periods of war and peace. The units continually train to conduct unconventional warfare in any of its forms, such as guerrilla warfare, special reconnaissance, evasion and escape, subversion and sabotage. During the Bush administration, SOF missions have expanded in size and importance as part of the Global War on Terrorism campaign.
Administered by the National Guard Bureau (a joint bureau of the departments of the Army and Air Force), the National Guard consists of both the Army National Guard (ARNG) and the Air National Guard (ANG). The National Guard has both a federal and state mission involving combat and non-combat army and air force units. Throughout its long history, Guard army units have been deployed overseas to fight in America’s wars, including the recent Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) campaign waged by the Bush administration. The National Guard is also charged with assisting state governments during times of natural disasters. However, some state National Guards have reportedly found themselves stretched too thin from overseas deployments of men and equipment to Iraq and Afghanistan, which has prevented Guard units from adequately responding to state emergences.
Spying and Intelligence Gathering
The Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) is both a major producer and manager of military intelligence for the Department of Defense. Approximately 11,000 men and women work for DIA worldwide (about 30% military personnel and 70% civilian personnel). The exact numbers and specific budget information are not publicly released due to security considerations.
One of the most secretive agencies in the federal government, the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) launches the nation’s military spy satellites. NRO takes orders from both the Secretary of Defense and the Director of National Intelligence and is funded through the National Reconnaissance Program, part of the National Foreign Intelligence Program. The agency shares its top secret data not only with military planners, but also members of the Intelligence Community. At one time, NRO’s technical sophistication was highly regarded, but after a series of blunders in recent years, the agency’s reputation has plummeted.
The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) collects, processes and dispenses satellite imagery for national security purposes. This imagery is used to depict the planet’s physical features or activities that are being monitored by the intelligence community. The agency also supports combat troops with tactical data, such as targeting information for precision bombing.
A highly secret office located within DoD, the Counterintelligence Field Activity (CIFA) is charged with protecting US military personnel and facilities against spying and acts of terrorism. Information regarding CIFA’s budget and number of personnel is classified. CIFA’s primary mission is to identify and track down suspected terrorists. In 2005 news reports revealed that CIFA had been spying on peace activists and Iraq war protesters and was implicated in the bribery scandal of former Congressman Randy “Duke” Cunningham.
Weapons Development and Sales
The purpose of the Missile Defense Agency is to develop and field a Ballistic Missile Defense System (BMDS) to defend the United States, its military forces, friends and allies against ballistic missile attacks. For five decades, engineers have been developing and testing variations of a missile defense to protect US cities from nuclear combat. Current programs being researched and tested include Ground-Based Interceptors, Theater High Altitude Area Defense, Kinetic Energy Interceptor and Multiple Kill Vehicle Program.
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is a unique research organization established to maintain the US military’s technological preeminence. Essentially, it’s the intellectual sandbox of the Defense Department, freed from many of the constraints imposed on other agencies so it can pursue riskier, more innovative research. Over the years, DARPA has helped develop technologies that have also worked their way into the civilian world, including the forerunner of the Internet. Some of its efforts have also been controversial.
The goal of the Defense Threat Reduction Agency is to reduce the threat of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) to the United States by either eliminating foreign stockpiles or mitigating their risk to the US and its allies. Much of its work is done cooperatively with foreign nations, such as the mutual examination of nuclear stockpiles, and the dismantling of weapons and equipment of formerly hostile nations in accordance with treaties like
START I. The agency also develops countermeasures against novel threats, both for domestic use and for combat support.
The Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) facilitates the sale of US weapons to other countries. Working with agencies in DoD and the State Department, DSCA provides financing, resources and/or contractors for the sale of arms, defense technologies, training and other services overseas. The agency’s work has contributed to the controversial proliferation of arms and military training to non-democratic, oppressive governments.
Partly run by the Department of Defense, the Technical Support Working Group (TSWG) is a low-profile multi-federal-agency program with a highly important mission. Working with a vast array of US government departments and agencies, TSWG helps to rapidly develop the latest in technological solutions to combat terrorism. “Rapid” is a key word in TSWG’s mission, as it is expected to fund projects that can be ready for use by law enforcement, military and other government personnel in two years or less from time of first approval.
Training
Referred to as the “intellectual center of the army,” the US Army Combined Arms Center oversees the operation of 33 schools and training centers, each of which is responsible for teaching specific skills to Army personnel and members of other armed services. The US Army has a long history of providing specialized training to its soldiers, going all the way back to the Revolutionary War. In recent times some elements of the CAC have drawn public attention for reports and internal debates over the Bush administration’s handling of the Iraq war.
The Command and General Staff College is a graduate school for US military and foreign military leaders at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. It is the Army’s senior tactical school and introduces officers to operational and strategic warfare. The college has five subordinate schools. Its main purpose is to synchronize Army leader development and education systems but works as a joint, interagency, multinational school.
The International Military Education and Training (IMET) program provides funding to train military and civilian leaders of foreign countries, primarily at schools and facilities in the US. IMET is implemented by the Department of Defense’ Defense Security Cooperation Agency, but funded by the State Department through the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. IMET has grown considerably during the administration of George W. Bush, from a budget of $50 million in FY 2000 to $85 million in FY 2008, a 70% increase. IMET has a long, controversial history of helping to train foreign military personnel who went on to commit human rights abuses in their home countries. Another, more recent controversial decision involving IMET stems from a Bush administration policy change to provide military training to one of America’s most notorious enemies: the dictator of Libya, Muammar al-Qaddafi.
Formerly known as the School of the Americas, the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation has long been the most controversial training center run by the US military. Throughout the Cold War, the school helped train thousands of military personnel from Latin American countries. Some of these graduates went on to commit human rights abuses and other atrocities in their home countries.
Logistics
The largest agency within the Department of Defense, the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) provides support as well as technical and logistic services to the Army, Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps and several federal agencies. DLA has supported every war in the past four decades, from the Vietnam War to the Operation Iraqi Freedom. It is in charge of almost every consumable item, everything from combat readiness, emergency preparedness and day-to-day operations inside DOD.
More than just a wing of the US Army, the Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has been a leading designer and builder of water projects across the United States since the early 20th Century. Corps engineers have been responsible for key flood control systems, including numerous dams, in the Western US and other regions. Known for its skill and expertise, the USACE’s reputation took a hit following Hurricane Katrina’s devastation of New Orleans after investigations showed faulty work by Corps engineers on key levies protecting the city.
Providing global information and technology assistance through online services, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) helps US military forces communicate with one another, pull information needed for their missions and receive accurate and protected information on any threats they may face. DISA focuses on delivery of information speed, operational effectiveness and efficiency, and sharing information. Its primary aim is to provide secure and reliable communications networks, computers, software, databases, applications and other products needed for the processing and transport needs of DoD.
Money Management
One of DoD’s most critical offices, the Defense Contract Management Agency (DCMA) oversees the purchase of high-priced weapons systems. DCMA is responsible for hundreds of thousands of contracts that have a collective value of $1.812 trillion. DCMA is the Pentagon’s contract manager, responsible for ensuring that federal acquisition programs (systems, supplies, and services) are delivered on time, within projected cost or price, and meet performance requirements.
The Defense Contract Audit Agency (DCAA) independently investigates Pentagon contracts to determine the fairness, accuracy and completeness of financial records and reports, as well as the effectiveness of any transactions DoD has made. In other words, the DCAA reviews business deals to make sure everything is aboveboard and acceptably efficient. The agency also provides financial advice to the Department of Defense at every step of the contracting or subcontracting process, from negotiation to final resolution.
The world’s largest finance and accounting operation, the Defense Finance and Accounting Services (DFAS) supports the principal advisor to the Secretary of Defense for budgetary and fiscal matters. The agency is responsible for coordination and collaboration with all civilian defense agencies, military services and combatant commands. The agency provides services primarily for military men and women, including processing military, civilian, retiree, travel and contract/vendor pay and managing military health care and benefits.
The Office of Economic Adjustment (OEA) is responsible for managing and directing efforts to assist communities impacted by Defense program changes, including base closures, base expansions and contract or program cancellations, and for coordinating involvement of other federal agencies in the process.
Criminal Investigation
DoD’s Office of Inspector General (DoDIG) serves as a watchdog for the department. The DoDIG is supposed to operate independently of the department to prevent and detect fraud, waste and abuse through audits and investigations. The Inspector General is in charge of keeping the Secretary of Defense and Congress informed about agency problems and deficiencies.
The Defense Criminal Investigative Service (DCIS) functions as the criminal investigative arm of the DoD
Inspector General. DCIS investigates criminal activities involving terrorism, procurement fraud, computer crimes, illegal technology transfers and public corruption within the Department of Defense.
Other
The American Forces Information Service serves as DoD’s public relations and information provider. It creates press releases through a news service and sets policy for internal publications, visual information and audiovisual programs. The AFIS also produces media aimed at service members and their families. Some critics have accused AFIS of deception by, for example, releasing press releases that mimic the style of actual news reports.
The nation’s most prestigious military cemetery, Arlington National Cemetery is also one of the oldest national cemeteries in the US. More than 310,000 people, including military casualties and veterans from every single U.S. war - from the American Revolution through US interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq - are buried at Arlington. The cemetery is also the final resting place of many notable civilian, historical, literary and minority figures, including former President John F. Kennedy.